i This pdf of your paper in Neighbours and Successors of Rome belongs to the publishers Oxbow Books and it is their copyright. As author you are licenced to make up to 50 offprints from it, but beyond that you may not publish it on the World Wide Web until three years from publication (May 2017), unless the site is a limited access intranet (password protected). If you have queries about this please contact the editorial department at Oxbow Books (editorial@oxbowbooks.com). An offprint from NeIghBOurs ANd successOrs Of rOMe TradiTions of glass producTion and use in europe and The Middle easT in The laTer 1sT MillenniuM ad Edited by daniel Keller, Jennifer Price and caroline Jackson hardcover edition: IsBN 978-1-78297-397-3 digital edition: IsBN 978-1-78297-398-0 © Oxbow Books 2014 Oxford & Philadelphia www.oxbowbooks.com iii Published in the united Kingdom in 2014 by OXBOW BOOKs 10 hythe Bridge street, Oxford OX1 2eW and in the united states by OXBOW BOOKs 908 darby road, havertown, PA 19083 © Oxbow Books and the individual authors 2014 hardcover edition: IsBN 978-1-78297-397-3 digital edition: IsBN 978-1-78297-398-0 A cIP record for this book is available from the British Library Library of congress cataloging-in-Publication data Neighbours and successors of rome : traditions of glass production and use in europe and the Middle east in the later 1st millennium Ad / edited by daniel Keller, Jennifer Price and caroline Jackson. -- first edition. pages cm Papers presented at a conference organized by the Association for the history of glass, held at King’s Manor, York, 19-20 May 2011. Includes bibliographical references. IsBN 978-1-78297-397-3 1. glassware industry--rome--history--To 1500--congresses. 2. glassware industry--Byzantine empire--history--To 1500--congresses. 3. glassware industry--europe--history--To 1500--congresses. 4. glass manufacture--rome--history--To 1500--congresses. 5. glass manufacture--Byzantine empire--history--To 1500--congresses. 6. glass manufacture--europe--history-To 1500--congresses. 7. glassware, roman--congresses. 8. glassware, Byzantine--congresses. 9. glassware--europe--congresses. 10. glassware, Medieval--congresses. I. Keller, daniel, 1970- compiler of edition. II. Price, J. (Jennifer), dr., compiler of edition. III. Jackson, caroline M., compiler of edition. hd9624.g553r666 2014 338.4’7666109409021--dc23 2014007701 All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical including photocopying, recording or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission from the publisher in writing. Printed in the united Kingdom by Berforts Information Press Ltd, eynsham, Oxfordshire for a complete list of Oxbow titles, please contact: uNITed KINgdOM Oxbow Books Telephone (01865) 241249, fax (01865) 794449 email: oxbow@oxbowbooks.com www.oxbowbooks.com uNITed sTATes Of AMerIcA Oxbow Books Telephone (800) 791-9354, fax (610) 853-9146 email: queries@casemateacademic.com www.casemateacademic.com/oxbow Oxbow Books is part of the casemate group Front cover images: Top left: early Anglo-saxon claw beaker, 5th/6th century, ringlemere farm, Kent; London, British Museum, 2005,1205.1. Top right: Late sasanian rhyton, 6th/7th century, Amlash(?), Iran; London, British Museum, 1972,0516.2. Bottom left: early Byzantine lamp, 6th century, Tyre(?), Lebanon; London, British Museum, 1900,0412.1. Bottom right: umayyad bottle, 8th century, Iran(?); London, British Museum, 1961,1114.1. (All reproduced by courtesy of the Trustees of the British Museum). Back cover images: Late roman gold-glass from the Wilshere collection in the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. contents Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................................................................................v List of Contributors ............................................................................................................................................................... vi 1 Glass from the later irst millennium AD: current state of research..............................................................................1 Daniel Keller, Jennifer Price and Caroline Jackson 2 The last roman glass in Britain: recycling at the periphery of the empire...................................................................6 Caroline Jackson and Harriet Foster 3 Opaque yellow glass production in the early medieval period: new evidence ...........................................................15 James R. N. Peake and Ian C. Freestone 4 The vessel glass assemblage from Anglo-saxon occupation at West heslerton, North Yorkshire .............................22 Rose Broadley 5 glassworking at Whitby Abbey and Kirkdale Minster in North Yorkshire.................................................................32 Sarah Paynter, Sarah Jennings† and Jennifer Price 6 Glass workshops in northern Gaul and the Rhineland in the irst millennium AD as hints of a changing land use – including some results of the chemical analyses of glass from Mayen ..................................43 Martin Grünewald and Sonngard Hartmann 7 campanulate bowls from Gallaecia: evidence for regional glass production in late antiquity ..................................58 Mário da Cruz 8 The Wilshere collection of late roman gold-glass at the Ashmolean Museum, university of Oxford .....................68 Susan Walker 9 The “proto-history” of Venetian glassmaking ..............................................................................................................73 David Whitehouse† 10 Late roman glass from south Pannonia and the problem of its origin ......................................................................79 Mia Leljak 11 glass supply and consumption in the late roman and early Byzantine site dichin, northern Bulgaria ....................83 Thilo Rehren and Anastasia Cholakova 12 An early christian glass workshop at 45, Vasileos Irakleiou street in the centre of Thessaloniki.............................95 Anastassios Ch. Antonaras Contents 13 Glass tesserae from Hagios Polyeuktos, Constantinople: their early Byzantine afiliations .....................................114 Nadine Schibille and Judith McKenzie 14 successors of rome? Byzantine glass mosaics .........................................................................................................128 Liz James 15 glass from the Byzantine Palace at ephesus in Turkey ............................................................................................137 Sylvia Fünfschilling 16 Late roman and early Byzantine glass from Heliopolis/Baalbek .............................................................................147 Hanna Hamel and Susanne Greiff 17 Changes in glass supply in southern Jordan in the later irst millennium AD ..........................................................162 Susanne Greiff and Daniel Keller 18 egyptian glass abroad: hIMT glass and its markets..................................................................................................177 Marie-Dominique Nenna 19 continuity and change in Byzantine and early Islamic glass from Syene/Aswan and elephantine, egypt ..............194 Daniel Keller 20 sasanian glass: an overview .......................................................................................................................................200 St John Simpson 6 Glass workshops in northern Gaul and the Rhineland in the irst millennium AD as hints of a changing land use – including some results of the chemical analyses of glass from Mayen Martin Grünewald and Sonngard Hartmann Introduction This paper is a result of two areas of research carried out in the Römisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum (RGZM), the Forschungsbereich Vulkanologie, Archäologie und Technikgeschichte in Mayen (VAT) and the Kompetenzzentrum für Archäometrie in Mainz (archaeometry). Through mapping the distribution of glass workshops in northern Gaul and the Rhineland in the irst millennium AD, some links with the changes in land use can be established (cf. project of the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft “Zur Landnutzung im Umfeld eines römischen ‘Industriereviers’”, FI 805/6-1). A large number of glass vessels found in late antique graves Fig. 6.1: Glass workshops from the irst millennium AD between the Rhine and the English Channel. Circles indicate either doubtful workshops or workshops not precisely datable to the periods of study (Martin Grünewald, graphic conversion Vera Kassühlke, RGZM). 44 Martin Grünewald and Sonngard Hartmann at Mayen have been studied by Martin Grünewald (VAT, see Grünewald 2011), and chemical analyses of the glass were undertaken by Susanne Greiff and Sonngard Hartmann at the RGZM (archaeometry). The analyses of 62 well dated glass fragments have made it possible to identify two different groups: one with a traditional Roman composition and another, usually called HIMT glass, which is characterized by higher levels of iron, manganese, and titanium. Together with a positive correlation of these elements it indicates the use of sands from sources different from the traditional Roman composition. The HIMT glass also has higher levels of sodium and magnesium than the Roman composition. This overview presents the glass workshops attested in the regions between the Rhine and the English Channel during the irst millennium AD. A preliminary article about the irst half of the irst millennium AD has already been published (Grünewald and Hartmann 2010), and the maps in the earlier article have been adjusted for this paper. More than 70 glass workshops in the region have been recognised from inds of furnaces, crucibles or working waste. In addition, sites marked by circles on Fig. 6.1 are further workshops, not deinitely dated to the irst millennium, as, for example, Höxter-Corvey. Recent research suggests that Kordel (Landkreis Trier-Saarburg/Germany) dates from the 12th or 13th century (Clemens 2012, 40) rather than from the Roman or early medieval periods, so it has not been included. In other cases, the evidence is not suficient for production sites to be identiied, as at Winningen (Kiessel 2009, 377–378, ig. 168) and Martberg (Nickel et al. 2008, 181, no. 03.02.018.01 and 188, no. 03.02.164.01), where scoriae have been found. The beginning of Roman glass workshops There was huge production of glass bracelets and beads in the region in the Latène period (Wagner 2006), but until the beginning of the 1st century, glass vessels were nearly unknown, although some have been found in southern France, Portugal and Spain (Feugère 1989, 29–62) and in the region north of the Alps, as at Manching (Landkreis Pfaffenhofen/Germany) and Basel/Switzerland (Feugère and Gebhard 1995, 504–511 with further references). Apart from a very few examples, such as the fragment of a core-formed vessel from Preist (4th or 3rd century BC, Eifelkreis Bitburg-Prüm/Germany; Zeitler 1990, 64; Nortmann 2012, 15), the irst vessels were brought to the region from Italy by Roman soldiers. Almost all of the glass in the region in the Iron Age were beads and bracelets. The distribution of these objects hints at regional production of glass jewellery, for example in the Lower Rhine area and the Main-Rhine-region (Haevernick 1981, 299–301; Wagner 2006, 147–153; Gebhard 2010, 10–11). Wagner (2006, 39) suggests that glass working was concentrated in oppida and other important Celtic settlements. Raw glass is known from several Celtic contexts, as at Bad Nauheim and Manching Fig. 6.2: Glass workshops from the 1st century (Martin Grünewald, graphic conversion Vera Kassühlke, RGZM). 6 Glass workshops in northern Gaul and the Rhineland in the irst millennium AD (Wagner 2006, 35–36). Wagner has also suggested Celtic raw glass production using regional sands and halophytes, but the chemical analyses of Celtic glass from Zarten (Landkreis Breisgau-Hochschwarzwald) do not show any evidence for a use of organic alkali (Andreas Burkhardt in Wagner 2006, 324). From the 1st century onwards (Fig. 6.2), glass workshops producing vessels are known in northern Gaul and the Rhineland. The irst Roman workshops were established in Cologne Eigelstein and Cologne Praetorium in the second quarter of the 1st century (Follmann-Schulz 1991, 35–36; Höpken and Schäfer 2006, 74–77). The pillar-moulded or non-blown ribbed bowl (Isings 1957, 17–21, form 3) is very common in the 1st century, and fragments found in Eigelstein may indicate that the form was produced there (Höpken and Schäfer 2006, 77, ig. 6). Signiicantly, nearly all 1st century workshops between the Rhine and the English Channel are situated in major urban centres such as Cologne and Amiens and in the legionary fortresses, as at Bonn and Nijmegen (Follmann-Schulz 1991, 36–37). The demand for glass was concentrated in the areas inhabited by soldiers from the Mediterranean and other wealthy Romanised glass users. The civil character of the settlement and the indigenous burial customs may explain why comparatively few of the glass vessels known from Mayen graves belong to this early period. Among these, two dark blue fragments have been examined analytically. Their glass owes its intense blue 45 colour to the high content of cobalt (CoO 0.14 and 0.18%), and one of the two fragments has a high iron content (Fig. 6.5, left). Cobalt is a well-known colouring agent for blue glass in 1st century, when brightly coloured glass was often used (Fischer 2008, 83). Neither of the dark blue fragments has a signiicantly high content of decolorant such as antimony. One explanation might be that the raw glass has been intended to be used as coloured glass (cf. Jackson et al. 2009, 154) and therefore no intentional effort was made to decolourise the glass. Glass workshops in the 2nd and 3rd centuries In the 2nd and 3rd centuries (Fig. 6.3) more glass workshops are known, as at Treves, but the overall distribution pattern does not change. In Gaul some glass workshops were sited in secondary and rural settlements, but none are known outside the larger settlements and castra in the Rhine region. The principal workshops in the northwestern provinces of the Roman empire were established in Cologne (Höpken and Schäfer 2006, 74–85). Certain vessels decorated with coloured threads (e.g. Harden et al. 1988, 124), for example, are well represented in the cemeteries of Cologne and are assumed to have been made in the city. From the 1st to the 3rd centuries most glass workshops of the Rhineland were sited in the political and economic centres. The majority of glass vessels were made of blue-green glass typical Fig. 6.3: Glass workshops from the 2nd and 3rd centuries (Martin Grünewald, graphic conversion Vera Kassühlke, RGZM). 46 Martin Grünewald and Sonngard Hartmann for the 2nd and 3rd centuries with the traditional Roman composition with relatively low iron content, below or around 0.6% (e.g. Foster and Jackson 2009, 190, table 1: 0.62% Fe). Among the mostly naturally coloured blue-green or greenish/bluish fragments analysed from Mayen, there seems to be no other glass composition until the 4th century. Subgroups of the traditional Roman composition have been suggested for northern Gaul and the Rhineland. Based on analyses of glass in the Rhineland, Komp (2009, 216) has suggested seven groups of Roman glass production, though the sources have not been located. Further analyses of better dated objects may show whether those groups have chronological signiicance as discussed by Komp for her group 4 (1st century) and group 1 (late antiquity, Komp 2009, 202 see below). A group of Belgian glass vessels dating from the second half of the 1st and beginning of 2nd century with a composition different from Levantine I, Egypt I and HIMT was published by Fontaine-Hodiament and Wouters (2002). In isotopic analyses of glass associated with a 2nd century furnace in Tienen (Belgium) the Nd signature shows a source of primary glass production in the western Mediterranean or northern Europe (Ganio et al. 2012, 752). According to British and French researchers the other raw glass groups mentioned were produced in Egypt and Levantine. Using the Strontium values, the current discussion favours Sinai as the provenance for HIMT glass (Freestone et al. 2005). There is no direct archaeological evidence for local raw glass production in the irst centuries in northern Gaul and the Rhineland. Elsewhere in the northwestern provinces, however, objects from the different stages of raw glass production are known from e.g. Sulzburg (Landkreis Breisgau-Hochschwarzwald/Germany) and York (United Kingdom) (Martin-Kilcher et al. 1979, 187; Jackson et al. 2003). Late antique glass workshops (end of 3rd to mid 5th century) In late antiquity numerous glass vessels were produced in minor and rural settlements as well as in major towns (cf. Louis and Gazenbeek 2011, 36 for northeastern Gaul). The number of known glass workshops increases from eleven to 23 at this time (Fig. 6.4). It is signiicant that many of the glass workshops were set up in regions with poor soil quality, as in the Hambach Forest (Landkreis Düren/ Germany; Brüggler 2009, 6) and in the upland areas in the Eifel. In many of the late antique rural settlements of the Eifel region there is evidence for metal working (Luik 1999, 215), in contrast to the agricultural activity of earlier periods. In the Eifel (Landkreis Daun/Germany) there is a signiicant decline in the formation of rural settlements and after the second half of the 3rd century only the more Fig. 6.4: Glass workshops from late antiquity (Martin Grünewald, graphic conversion Vera Kassühlke, RGZM). 6 Glass workshops in northern Gaul and the Rhineland in the irst millennium AD fertile soils were used for cultivation (Henrich 2006, 117). The economic base of the former villae rusticae changed from the 3rd to the 4th century. At the same time, there was a rise in the exports of the Eifel pottery industry e.g. in Mayen (Landkreis Mayen-Koblenz/Germany; Redknap 1999, 133–138; Glauben et al. 2009, 137–138; Hunold 2012, 293–297). The pottery, metal and glass workshops in this region all needed a plentiful supply of wood. Between the 1st and the 3rd centuries the Hambach Forest area was used for agricultural purposes (Brüggler 2009, 208–209). Between c. AD 50 and c. AD 220 there was a peak of grain pollen, as at Jülicher Börde, while in later periods, and speciically at the beginning of the 5th century, agricultural use of the land in this area had nearly stopped. At the same time the forested areas expanded (Bunnik 1995, 344–345; Fischer et al. 2005, 306, 309–313). A similar pattern has also been recorded for the Eifel. In these regions, the analyses show a signiicant increase of the beech pollen counts in late antiquity (Hunold and Sirocko 2009, 146). The increasing availability of wood may have been a reason for the establishing of the glass workshops in regions where agriculture was no longer proitable and forests were regenerating. The climatic conditions in late antiquity, with cooler summers, may have been less suitable for agriculture (Büntgen et al. 2011, 581). Thus, the distribution pattern of glass workshops and the changes in land use seem to be related to climatic decline. In the Hambach Forest a large workshop with several production sites in former villae has been located (Brüggler 2009, 226–227). The graves belonging to this community make it possible to date the workshop to the 4th and 5th centuries. Chemical analyses of the glass shows signiicantly high iron values for some objects although others have the traditional Roman composition. This was interpreted as an argument for local raw glass production by Wedepohl (Follmann-Schulz et al. 2000, 134), but according to Freestone and others these high iron values occur in many late antique glasses (HIMT glass) in different regions of the Roman empire (Freestone et al. 2005). However, by contrast with the HIMT glass from e.g. Mayen, the material from Hambach does not show a distinct correlation between iron and titanium (Fig. 6.5). According to Wedepohl (Follmann-Schulz et al. 2000) the higher vanadium values and similarities between the elements of the sand of the local river Rur and the glass from Hambach provide an additional argument for raw glass production in Hambach. In more recent publications these arguments are discussed as a sign of a more regional glass production in late antiquity, which may suggest increased use of local raw materials (group 1 according to Komp 2009, 179). In this connection it is noteworthy that the furnaces and crucibles in Hambach were heated to a temperature of c. 1100° C (Brüggler and Daszkiewicz 2004, 806, 817) which is necessary for raw glass production but not glass working. In summary, there 47 are some hints, but no compelling evidence, for raw glass production in Hambach (Brüggler 2009, 86–90). Unlike much of the Mediterranean region, there was a plentiful supply of wood in northern Gaul and the Rhineland, which would have assisted production of raw glass. Many late antique glass workshops were sited in woodlands. The amount of wood needed to produce raw glass was deinitely higher (50kg wood for 1kg raw glass, according to Brüggler 2009, 215), than to remelt it. Glass working is possible at temperatures from 630°C and higher, while raw glass production needs temperatures higher than c. 1100°C (Brüggler and Daszkiewicz 2004, 806, 817), and the transport of wood to the workshops would have been expensive. The changes in the distribution pattern of the glass workshops and the change in the range of forms of glass vessels (van Lith and Randsborg 1985, 463; Brüggler 2005, 155) may be contemporary with the introduction of the new HIMT composition (cf. Freestone et al. 2005) of glass in the 4th century, and this is considered for Britain by Jackson and Foster (this volume). The chemical analyses of closely dated glass vessels from the cemetery of Mayen show that some vessels from the last third of the 4th century to the second half of the 5th century were made with the new HIMT composition (Fig. 6.6), and it can be demonstrated that regional vessel forms such as conical beakers with diagonal ribs and cylindrical lasks with funnel mouths (Isings 1957, 127–129, 160–161, forms 106b, 132; Grünewald 2012) were only made of the HIMT composition (Fig. 6.5). Production at Hambach is suggested for the barrel jug (Isings 1957, 158, form 128) from Mayen, because of the basal design with ECVA (Fig. 6.5). A base fragment with an identical design was found in a pit near a glass furnace in Hambach 111 (Follmann et al. 2000, 124). Local manufacture of vessels in the region of Mayen is suggested by the distribution pattern of regional glass types (Grünewald 2011, 191–194; Grünewald and Hartmann 2010, 18–20). Merovingian glass workshops (second half of the 5th to irst half of the 8th century) In the Merovingian period (Fig. 6.7) only a few glass workshops are known and their distribution pattern is dificult to interpret. The production sites at Macquenoise and Hasselsweiler (Päffgen and Wedepohl 2004, 840–842) may point to continuity of glass working in rural landscapes, close to their Roman predecessors. In many cases only the production of glass beads has been documented, as at Wijnaldum and Rijnsburg, to the north of the mapped area (Götzen 1999, 48). There is strong continuity with late antiquity, and signiicant reduction of vessel types such as beakers, bowls and tumblers. The contrast between the relatively large number of late antique workshops and the 48 Martin Grünewald and Sonngard Hartmann Fig. 6.5: Comparison of Mayen and Hambach compositions (FeO/TiO2) with highlighted typical vessels (Sonngard Hartmann, RGZM). Fig. 6.6: Mayen glass with different compositions over timeline (Sonngard Hartmann, RGZM). small number of Merovingian workshops is paralleled by a general reduction of glass use and is not simply a relection of the current state of research. Merovingian glass compositions in the Rhineland are known from sites like Hasselsweiler and Gellep (Päffgen and Wedepohl 2004, 842–847; Wedepohl et al. 1997). To some extent they are similar to the late Roman HIMT composition but there seems to be wider variation than during the late Roman period, as it has been shown when comparing the iron values of the later Gellep and the Roman 6 Glass workshops in northern Gaul and the Rhineland in the irst millennium AD 49 Fig. 6.7: Glass workshops from the Merovingian period (Martin Grünewald, graphic conversion Vera Kassühlke, RGZM). Fig. 6.8: Glass workshops from the Carolingian period and the end of the irst millennium AD (Martin Grünewald, graphic conversion Vera Kassühlke, RGZM). 50 Martin Grünewald and Sonngard Hartmann Mayen compositions (Grünewald and Hartmann 2010, 22, ig. 14). Recent analyses show that the glass from the second half of the 5th century (Fig. 6.6) found in Mayen is also of HIMT composition. Only two later Merovingian objects from Mayen were made in a different type of soda-limeglass. In general Merovingian glass compositions seem to be similar to the main group of Roman soda-lime-glass. The existence and importance of the production of this raw glass in the Roman and Merovingian periods in the northwestern provinces is still under discussion (Zimmermann 2011, 109–124). Carolingian and later glass workshops (second half of the 8th to 10th century) Carolingian glass workshops (Fig. 6.8) have been found in religious and political centres such as palatinates and monasteries like Lorsch, Aachen and Fulda (Päffgen 2003, 20–23; Giertz and Ristow 2013; Wedepohl 2003). An important example is known in the well-dated palatinate at Paderborn of the end of the 8th century. A secondary workshop using late soda-lime-glass is attested there as well as glass objects made of wood ash glass, a new composition in which potassium substitutes sodium as the alkali. The new glass composition has been thought to be related to dificulties in the importation of soda or soda-lime raw glass from the east after the confrontation between the Carolingians and the Arabs (Stephan and Wedepohl 1997, 706), but the Arabs also used a different glass composition with plantash after this time (Freestone 2006, 203). Hence it is more likely that the demand for natron outstripped the supply because the changed climatic conditions caused no new soda to be formed in e.g. Wadi Natrun. This shortfall may have been further accentuated by the increased scale of glass production at this period (Freestone et al. 2006, 521–530). The demand in the monasteries and palatinates for e.g. window panes might explain a change in the distribution pattern, the glass workshops returning to the economic centres. An improvement in climate connected with increased use of land for agriculture is also signiicant at this time (Schreg 2009, 157–158; Bunnik 1995, 345). with demand and resources such as the materials for production and the wood for iring the furnaces. Comparison with other workshops with high consumption of wood for fuel, such as pottery or metal production, and the similarity of the distribution patterns of those workshops in late antiquity may indicate a connection with changing land use and have close links with climatic change. In late antiquity and the Merovingian period there was climatic deterioration, and a similar phenomenon is well known from AD 1300 until 1850 during the little Ice Age (Alt and Sirocko 2009, 170). In both periods secondary glass workshops were far removed from the economic centres (see Clemens and Steppuhn 2012, with further literature about later glass workshops). A long list of ind spots with hints of glass working, which at the current stage of research cannot be either interpreted or dated exactly, are also listed in the catalogue and shown on Fig. 6.1. More knowledge about those glass workshops will probably change the present picture. Furthermore the current overview does not provide an answer to the question of where the raw glass used in Gaul and the Rhineland was produced. Further research will be necessary to explore these issues. Catalogue of glass workshops of the irst millennium AD between the Rhine and the English Channel Question marks (?) indicate either doubtful workshops or workshops not precisely datable to the period. The workshops of Evreux (départment Eure/France), SorelMoussel (départment Eure-et-Loire/France) and Troyes (départment Aube/France; cf. Foy 2010, 27) are outside the mapped area (Fig. 6.1). Further evidence for glass workshops in Germany have also been found in Augsburg, Haithabu (Landkreis Schleswig-Flensburg), HiddenhausenOetinghausen (Landkreis Herford), Gross Köris-Klein Köris (Landkreis Dahme-Spreewald), Mühlberg (Landkreis Gotha) and Oldendorf-Melle (Landkreis Osnabrück; cf. Päffgen 2003, 13, 21). Glass workshops from the 1st century • Summing up The Carolingian renaissance is comparable to the 1st century in the concentration of glass working sites in economic centres. A different distribution pattern is common in the later medieval period, starting in the 12th–14th centuries, which may be in some respects comparable to late antiquity. There are many different reasons for the changing patterns of distribution of glass working in the irst millennium AD. The siting of the workshops is a complex phenomenon connected • • Aachen, Minoriten-Grosskölnstraße (Germany)?: the traces of glass working mentioned by van Geesbergen (1999, 120) are probably connected with metal working, because the chemical analyses of nine small crucibles indicated processing of nonferrous metal (Strauch 1996, 96; Keller 2004, 44). Amiens, rue du Maréchal-de-Lattre-de-Tassigny (départment Somme/France): remains of inished products and working waste; end of 1st century (van Geesbergen 1999, 117; Foy and Nenna 2001, 47). Bavay (départment Nord/France): furnace (van Geesbergen 1999, 117; Foy and Nenna 2001, 47). 6 Glass workshops in northern Gaul and the Rhineland in the irst millennium AD • • • • • Bonn (Germany): three complexes each with two furnaces, glass working waste, limestone mould fragments from the production of square bottles (Isings 1957, 63–67, form 50). The glass furnaces were abandoned during the last third of the 1st century (Follmann-Schulz 1991, 36; Follmann-Schulz 2010, 235–237). Cologne, Eigelstein 14 (Germany): more than ive furnaces, glass working waste; Cologne, Praetorium (Germany): three furnaces (Follmann-Schulz 1991, 35–36; Höpken and Schäfer 2006, 74–77). Ludwigshafen-Rheingönheim (Germany)?: early chemical analyses suggest that one of three crucibles may have been used for glass working. Comparison with more recent analyses shows that the chemical composition is not a conclusive argument for glass working (Roller 1957, 60–61; Ulbert 1969, 57–58, pl. 61.8–10). Nijmegen (Netherlands): fragments of glass and pottery, glass scoriae; 1st century (Follmann-Schulz 1991, 37). Reims (départment Marne/France): glass working waste, such as raw glass, glass drops, etc. (Cabart 2003, 44). • • • • • • Glass workshops from the 2nd and 3rd centuries • • • • • • Aspelt (Kanton Esch-sur-Alzette/Luxembourg): crucible (Niederbieber 104), furnace, but it is unclear whether this was used for glass working (Dövener 2003, 44). Bermont (Moiremont, départment Meuse/France)?: possible crucibles may indicate glass working (Gazenbeek 2003, 293). Bonn (Germany): two fragments of crucibles (Niederbieber 104) probably indicate glass working in the 3rd century (Follmann-Schulz 1991, 37). Cologne, Eigelstein 35–39 (Germany): eleven furnaces, raw glass, glass working waste; Cologne, Helenenstraße: furnace with three parts, basin, crucible, glass working waste; Cologne, Gereonstraße: raw glass, fragments of furnace; Marienburg: raw glass deposit for production of melon beads (Höpken and Schäfer 2006, 83). Krefeld (Germany): small glass furnace, probably for production of coloured glass jewellery (Reichmann 1995, 132). Lavoye, La Clairière (départment Meuse/France): furnace of the second half of the 3rd century (Polfer 2005, 125; Gazenbeek 2003, 293 mentioned seven further furnaces without dating in Lavoye and several pits with crucibles of the 2nd and 3rd centuries in two nearby indspots in Argonne: Verrières, La Haie-Guérin and Varennes, La Gruerie). Liberchies (Pont-à-Celles, province Hainaut/Belgium): crucibles, glass working waste, fragments of furnaces covered with melted glass; AD 180 to 260 (van Geesbergen 1999, 118; van Geesbergen 2000, 3; Hanut 2006, 12). Neuss (Germany): glass working waste; irst half of 2nd century (Sauer 1991, 560). Rouen (départment Seine-Maritime/France): some evidence for glass working in the 3rd century (Foy and Nenna 2001, 53). Tirlemont (Tienen, province Vlaams-Brabant/Belgium): furnace, raw glass; 2nd century (Hanut 2006, 12). Treves, Hohenzollernstraße (Germany): fragments of crucibles; 2nd century and 3rd to early 4th century (cf. late antique workshops, Goethert-Polaschek 2011, 106). Treves, Hopfengarten, Heiligkreuz (Germany): furnace for crucible, annealing furnace, crucible; black glass with high iron content may be an evidence for production of jewellery; second half of 2nd century (Pfahl 2000, 53–54; Goethert-Polaschek 2012, 25). Xanten (Germany): some evidence for a glass workshop; 2nd or 3rd century (pers. comm. Bernd Liesen). Glass workshops from late antiquity (end of 3rd until mid 5th century) • • 51 • • • • • • • • Aachen, region of the cloister of the Münster (Germany)?: fragment of crucible; probably 4th century (Päffgen 2003, 10; Päffgen and Wedepohl 2004, 837). Alzey (Germany): two fragments of crucible (Alzey 27), glass cullet for recycling; mid 5th century (Oldenstein 2009, 219–220). Bitburg (Germany): fragments of crucibles; 4th century (van Geesbergen 1999, 120). Bollendorf (Eifelkreis Bitburg-Prüm/Germany): crucibles, raw glass (Steinhausen 1932, 51; Luik 1999, 215). Clermont-en-Argonne (départment Meuse/France)?: crucibles, waste, wall of furnace, the late antique dating is not surely attested (Polfer 2005, 72). Cologne near Waidmarkt (Germany): two fragments of crucibles. Kattenbug: fragment of crucible (Höpken and Schäfer 2006, 84). Florange-Daspich (départment Moselle/France): a crucible covered with melted glass inside probably indicates a workshop in late antiquity (Polfer 2005, 123–124). Goch-Asperden (Landkreis Kleve/Germany): two furnaces, possible blowpipe, glass for recycling, moils, fragments of crucibles, raw glass chunks, glass waste indicates the production of vessels as well as jewellery (black bracelets); around AD 400 and in the irst third of the 5th century (Brüggler 2008, 110–111; Brüggler 2011). Hambach (Landkreis Düren/Germany), eight ind spots: Hambach 59: four to six furnaces. Hambach 75: nine furnaces, glass working waste, moils, raw glass, glass for recycling. Hambach 111: three furnaces, glass working waste, fragment of crucible. Hambach 127: production waste. Hambach 132: 12 or 13 furnaces, glass working 52 • • • • • • • • • • • • • Martin Grünewald and Sonngard Hartmann waste, fragments of crucibles, moils, glass drops and threads, glass for recycling, etc. Hambach 382: seven furnaces, fragments of crucibles. Hambach 488: more than two furnaces, fragment of crucible. Hambach 500: two furnaces, crucible (Follmann-Schulz et al. 2000, 153, 162–165, 177–178; Brüggler 2009, especially 65–92, 210–215). Hontheim, Entersburg (Landkreis Bernkastel-Wittlich/ Germany): fragments of crucible (Alzey 28), glass fragments of the 2nd and 3rd centuries for remelting, pottery fragments mostly dating from the irst half and mid 4th century (Gilles 1985, 131–133). Krefeld (Germany)?: fragment of crucible (Alzey 28) (Follmann-Schulz et al. 2000, 109). La Chalade/Le Plagneux (départment Meuse/France): fragments of crucibles may indicate glass working (Polfer 2005, 143). Lavoye-Les Tannières (départment Meuse/France): furnace, crucibles, glass working waste; 3rd to 4th century (Polfer 2005, 125; further evidence for late antique glass working: Gazenbeek 2003, 293). Leudersdorf (Landkreis Vulkaneifel/Germany)?: fragments of round discs of green, turquoise and reddish brown glass, intended for use as raw material for mosaics (Luik 1999, 214–215; Henrich 2006, 84). Lyons-la-Forêt (départment Eure/France): forty fragments of crucibles with melted glass inside; 3rd and 4th centuries (Foy and Nenna 2001, 56–57). Mainz, Bauhofstraße (Germany): glass waste and raw material; late 3rd and 4th centuries (Witteyer 1999, 11). Metz, quartier Saint-Marcel (départment Moselle/ France): scoriae, tile covered with melted glass, glass drops, etc. (van Geesbergen 1999, 117; Foy and Nenna 2001, 56). Mittelstrimmig (Landkreis Cochem-Zell/Germany): fragments of crucibles; mid 4th century (van Geesbergen 1999, 121). Sainte-Menehould-Houis (départment Marne/France): furnace, fragments of crucibles, glass working waste, metal tools, material of the 3rd and the 4th centuries (Gazenbeek 2003, 291; Polfer 2005, 72). Speyer, Domplatz (Germany): fragments of crucibles, remains of furnace; irst half of 4th century (Grünwald 1989, 42–43). Titelberg (Kanton Esch-sur-Alzette/Luxembourg): a few remains of a furnace, crucibles, raw glass, scoriae, glass drops and threads, etc. Thill (1968, 523) dated this to the 3rd and beginning of the 4th centuries, but later production is possible, as some coins on the site date from the end of the 4th century and some possible remains of later glass vessel forms are present (Thill 1968, 521–528; Grünewald 2011, 188–190). Trebur (Kreis Groß-Gerau/Germany): production of • • • • • • • glass beads is attested by raw glass fragments, a mould, semi-inished and inished beads of the 4th and beginning of the 5th century (Knöchlein 2002, 105–114). Treves, Kesselstadt (Germany): fragments of crucibles, jewellery (rings) from the irst third of the 4th century (Goethert-Polaschek 2012, 25). Treves, Dom (Germany): furnace, fragments of crucibles, raw glass, probably for production of inlays for opus sectile wall decoration (Goethert-Polaschek 2011, 107). Treves, Barbarathermen (Germany): fragments of crucibles with reddish brown glass inside, probably for production of inlays for opus sectile wall decoration (Goethert-Polaschek 2011, 107; 2012, 25). Treves, south-western neighbourhood (Germany, three indspots close to each other): Töpferstraße: fragments of crucible (Speicher 2/Alzey 28), glass waste (GoethertPolaschek 1983, 316, ig. 274a; Goethert 1984, 249; Goethert-Polaschek 2011, 70). Treves, Lintzstraße: furnace(?), fragments of crucibles, fragments of burnt clay covered with melted glass (Goethert-Polaschek 1983, 316, ig. 274b; Goethert 1984, 249; Goethert-Polaschek 2011, 72–76). Treves, Hohenzollernstraße: two furnaces from the end of 3rd to beginning of 4th century and after the mid 4th century respectively, remains of older furnaces from the end of 3rd century, fragments of crucibles from the second half of 3rd to mid 4th century, glass working waste, raw glass, moils, drops, threads, etc. (GoethertPolaschek 2011, 76–143; 2012, 19–24). Worms (Germany): furnace, glass working waste, two fragments of crucibles (Päffgen and Wedepohl 2004, 836; Grünewald and Vogt 2001, 18–20). Glass workshops from the Merovingian period (second half of the 5th until irst half of the 8th century) • • • • • Cologne, Heumarkt (Germany): two furnaces, fragments of glass vessels, production of vessels and beads is attested (Päffgen 2003, 18; Päffgen and Trier 2001, 27). Hasselsweiler (Landkreis Düren/Germany): fragments of glass vessels, fragments of two crucibles; second half of 5th century (Päffgen and Wedepohl 2004, 840). Huy, Aux ruelles and rue Sous-le-Château (province Liège/Belgium): remains of four furnaces, many crucibles, glass working waste such as glass drops, threads, etc.; mid 5th to mid 6th century (de Bernardy de Sigoyer et al. 2005, 29–33; Fontaine 2005, 72–73). Maastricht, Jodenstraat (province Limburg/Netherlands): fragments of crucibles, glass working waste, production of glass beads; 6th to 7th century (Päffgen 2003, 18; Päffgen and Wedepohl 2004, 841–842). Macquenoise (near Chimay, province Hainaut/Belgium): 6 Glass workshops in northern Gaul and the Rhineland in the irst millennium AD • • two furnaces, fragments of crucibles, production of beakers dating c. AD 530–580/610 (Päffgen 2003, 18; Päffgen and Wedepohl 2004, 842). Saint-Denis (départment Seine-Saint-Denis/France): fragments of crucibles found in the waste near the Merovingian cemetery (Foy and Nenna 2001, 58). Treves (Germany)?: mapped by Päffgen and Wedepohl 2004, 841. • • • Glass workshops from the Carolingian period and the end of the irst millennium AD (second half of the 8th until 10th century) • • • • • • • • • • • • Aachen, three indspots in the vicinity of the palatinate: Büchel-Straße, Dom Quadrum and Hof (Germany): raw material for gold-glass tesserae, crucibles, raw glass chunks, tesserae; around AD 800 (Giertz and Ristow 2013). Cologne (Germany): probable glass furnace; 9th or early 10th century (Päffgen and Trier 2001, 30; Päffgen 2003, 20). Dorestad (province Utrecht/Netherlands): fragment of crucible (Päffgen 2003, 23). Fulda (Germany): melted chunk of blue glass, fragments of crucible; second half of 8th until second half of 9th century (Kind et al. 2003, 73–74; Päffgen 2003, 22). Höxter-Corvey (Germany)?: fragments of crucibles(?), raw glass (for enamel or glass); 9th to 11th or 12th century (Stephan and Wedepohl 1997, 676, 706, 715; Stephan 2000, 349, 791). Lorsch (Landkreis Bergstraße, Germany): moil, glass tesserae, Carolingian (Kronz et al. 2002, 50, 60–61, ig. 8.32). Paderborn (Germany): fragments of furnace covered with glass, melted glass, glass tesserae; AD 776/777 (Winkelmann 1977, 123–125; Päffgen 2003, 22). Paris (France): fragments of crucibles; 9th to 10th century (Foy and Nenna 2001, 59). Saint-Denis (départment Seine-Saint-Denis/France): fragments of crucibles with glass inside, scoriae (Foy and Nenna 2001, 60). Treves, St. Irminen (Germany): evidence for glass working: tesserae with gold foil for remelting, painted fragments of window glass, etc. (Clemens 2001, 48–52; Päffgen 2003, 20). Further sites mapped in Fig. 1 which are not precisely datable to the periods of study • • Aachen, Katschhof (Germany): fragments of three crucibles may indicate a glass workshop (Strauch 1996, 30; Keller 2004, 44). Aiseau (province Hainaut/Belgium)?: doubtful fragment of crucible (van Geesbergen 1999, 119; Polfer (2005, • • • • • • • • • • 53 25 note 72) excluded this site because of the lack of evidence for a workshop). Allieux (Vauquois, départment Meuse/France): furnace, glass blocks (Gazenbeek 2003, 293; Polfer 2005, 148). Anthée (province Namur/Belgium)?: glass rods and powdered remains of glass found in the region of a Roman villa (van Geesbergen 2000, 3; Brüggler 2009, 218). Aubréville (départment Meuse/France): furnace (Gazenbeek 2003, 293 also mentioned further evidence for glass working at Pont-Verdunois west of Aubréville). Breuil (départment Marne/France)?: possible crucibles may indicate glass working (Gazenbeek 2003, 293). Champion (province Namur/Belgium)?: two furnaces, the interpretation as glass furnaces is doubtful (van Geesbergen 2000, 3; Brüggler 2009, 218). Châtel-Chéhéry (départment Ardennes/France): furnace and block of glass (Polfer 2005, 139). Dieulouard-Scarpone (départment Meurthe-et-Moselle/ France)?: doubtful glass working waste (van Geesbergen 1999, 118; Polfer (2005, 25 note 72) excluded this site because of the lack of evidence for a workshop). Düren (Germany): fragments of raw glass and furnace, moils, glass drops and threads, probably Roman (Komp 2010, 73–74). Froidos-Berthaucourt (départment Meuse/France): furnace, crucibles (Foy and Nenna (2001, 57) said this was late antique; Polfer (2005, 125) and Gazenbeek (2003, 293) have accepted dating in the 3rd century). Jülich, Kölnstraße (Landkreis Düren/Germany): fragment of crucible (with different dating: Päffgen and Wedepohl 2004, 837: 3rd–4th century; Follmann-Schulz et al. 2000, 112: early type Niederbieber 104, 2nd or early 3rd century; Perse 1995, 127: without dating). Lavoye, Parc Saillet (départment Meuse/France): furnace, fragments of furnace covered with glass, fragments of crucibles, unknown dating (Polfer 2005, 125; further evidence: Gazenbeek 2003, 293). Macquenoise (province Hainaut/Belgium)?: crucibles(?), scoriae, glass working waste, the mould for production of a grape lask (Isings 1957, 108–109, form 91a) is a fake; Roman (van Geesbergen 1999, 119; van Geesbergen 2000, 3). Marlemont (départment Ardennes/France)?: „quelques fouilles qui ont déterminé l‘emplacement d‘une verrerie gallo-romaine“, not mentioned in more recent French literature (Albot 1906, 210; Götzen 1999, 247). Maubert-Fontain (départment Ardennes/France)?: traces of a furnace; Roman (3rd century), not mentioned in more recent French literature (Albot 1906, 210; Götzen 1999, 246). Metz (départment Moselle/France)?: glass droplets may be evidence for glass working; mid 1st to 3rd century (Foy and Nenna 2001, 53). 54 • • • • • • • • • • • • Martin Grünewald and Sonngard Hartmann Montaigle (Onhaye, province Namur/Belgium): crucible covered with block of melted glass (Hanut and Mignon 2012, 263). Mouzon (départment Ardennes/France): crucibles (Polfer 2005, 126). Perl-Borg (Landkreis Merzig-Wadern/Germany): possible raw glass, glass working waste, fragments of crucibles, clay and mortar fragments of furnace covered with melted glass; Roman (Birkenhagen and Wiesenberg 2013, 149–150, 169). Rivenich (Landkreis Bernkastel-Wittlich/Germany)?: glass scoriae and melted glass may indicate glass working (Polfer 2005, 133). Rochefort / Jemelle (province Namur/Belgium)?: furnace, the interpretation as a glass furnace is doubtful (van Geesbergen 1999, 119; van Geesbergen 2000, 3–4; Brüggler 2009, 218). Rouen, abbey Saint Ouen (départment Seine-Maritime/ France): antique furnace, discovered in 1853 (Foy and Nenna 2001, 60). Saint-Martin-Longueau (départment Oise/France): indications of glass workshops (Woimont 1995, 425– 426, no. 587; Polfer 2005, 127). Senlis (départment Oise/France): Roman furnace (Polfer 2005, 113). Spangdahlem-Unterm Rohr (Landkreis Bitburg-Prüm/ Germany)?: glass scoriae, Roman and medieval pottery fragments, glass workshop doubtful (Jahresbericht 1939, 68–69; Polfer 2005, 134). Utrecht (Netherlands): fragments of crucibles were found in the Roman camp, but are not stratiied (Isings 1957, 12). Vermand (départment Aisne/France)?: glass fragments formerly interpreted as glass working waste (van Geesbergen 1999, 118; Polfer (2005, 25, note 72) excluded this site because of the lack of evidence for a workshop). Vieux-Moulin, pré Tortu (départment Oise/France): glass workshop; Roman to medieval (Woimont 1995, 498, no. 674; Polfer 2005, 148). Acknowledgements We would like to thank the organisers of the conference for the very friendly support; Daniel Keller, Susanne Greiff, Julius Grünewald and the reviewer for their suggestions for this paper. Bibliography Albot (1906) La verrerie et les verriers italiens dans les Ardennes. Revue Historique Ardennaise, 209–273. Alt, K. 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